The State of Our Buds

Buds can be a true sign of the cold spring that we have had. Compared to last year, on this very same day, our buds in 2017 were significantly more advanced.
We finished up pruning and laying down all of the canes in preparation for this year and this is what our buds look like:

The weather forecast for this coming week is a little hopeful with temperatures in the 70's on Wednesday and Thursday. However, for the rest of the week the temperatures are in the 60's!

Vintage 2018: Spring Chores

We began our pruning chores in late March, which is sooner than we have in the past, but we are realizing that it is not early enough, given the number of plants we now have to manage.
The pruning tasks can be divided into the following:

• 1) Cutting the tendrils off of the catch wires and moving the Agfast
• 2) Making the major cuts of last year's shoots
• 3) Cutting tendrils and larger summer laterals off of this year's canes
• 4) Layng down and securing this year's canes

Our friends came to help us with the first task. Doing that alone can save us 1-1/2 hours per row, (we have 36 rows). We then go back so my husband can make the major cut of last year's "lay down cane" with his battery operated shears and then I follow him and clean up and lay down this year's fruiting cane. The last three tasks takes us 2 hours per row.
One can make all the projections about how long tasks will take and establish goals, but Mother Nature will still have her way. You know the saying, April showers bring May flowers, well, we had that in spades this April, with even a few snow days sprinkled in.

Good news, bad news: I am not overly complaining because the snow/rain/wind days gives us a chance to recharge our batteries, but pruning is a race against bud break. With the temperatures being lower than normal for April, our buds are lagging behind.

Chardonnay Tasting

Recently, we had some friends over to do a side-by-side blind Chardonnay tasting. My husband wrapped 4 different Chardonnays in brown bags and had 4 glasses one for each Chardonnay. We did this because we feel that Chardonnay can be made in various styles that range from oaky, buttery, acid packed to austere.
We chose 4 Chardonnays, one from Australia, Burgundy, California and Oregon. Although we did tell our friends the country/state of origin, our friends had to guess where the Chardonnay came from and any other information they wanted to provide.
One of the wines was definitely more yellowish in color, but it was not oxidized. It was just yellow. Another wine had a very sulfury nose. The women liked the French and Oregon wine the best. But one of us did like the Australian wine. This just goes to show that the various styles of Chardonnay has an appeal to different people.
Bottom line, we had fun doing this!

A phylogenetic analysis of the grape genus (Vitis L.): Part 2

After reading the publication A phylogenetic analysis of the grape genus (Vitis L.) reveals broad reticulation and concurrent diversification during neogene and quaternary climate change, I found myself in a rabbit hole, trying to understand terminology that was quite foreign to me in order to follow the conclusions contained in the article.
To aid in the determination of when and how the major branches of the genus Vitis occurred, the researchers relied on the grapevine molecular clock contained within the DNA and fossil records including:

• the oldest reliable Vitis seeds dating from the Paleocene (65.5-55.8 Ma)
• the divergence of Vitaceae and Leeaceae (stem age of Vitaceae), estimated at 90.82 – 90.65 Ma, based on a five gene data set (chloroplast rbcL, atpB,matK, and nuclear 18S and 26S nrDNA) obtained from GenBank, and conversion to absolute time using three fossil reference time points
• the divergence of the Ampelocissus-Vitis clade in the Tiffian stage of the Paleocene (62.0-56.8 Ma) based on fossil evidence
• the presence of well preserved Vitis seed at the late Neogene Gray Fossil site in Tennessee (7-4.5 Ma)

The authors used Bayesian Evolutionary Analysis by Sampling Trees (BEAST) and Randomized Accelerated Maximum Likelihood (RAxML) to report the number of unique site patterns. Based on this, they calculated that the average rate of substitution in this data set was 7.2 × 10-8 substitutions per site per million years, and used this information to calibrate the grapevine molecular clock.
The authors summarized their findings in this chronogram that shows divergence on the y-axis and geologic time line on the x-axis.¹

I used this diagram to understand the timing related to the grapevine's North American continental origin, dispersal and diversification.²

• The phylogenetic relationships and network of grapevines reflect the Northern hemisphere Cenozoic history.
• Fossil distributions suggest that, by the end of the Neogene the genus Vitis was widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere.
• Fossils of Vitaceae have been found frequently in Western North American Eocene deposits dating from 55.8 to 33.9 Ma.
• This fossil history coupled with the DNA analysis suggest an increasing fragmentation, isolation, and differentiation beginning in North America and extending to Asia and Europe.

This origin of grapevines in North America and it's spread to Europe and Asia can be reconciled by looking at the map of Laurasia.³ During the Paleocene, the supercontinent Laurasia had only begun dividing into North America and Eurasia and the climate was much warmer. North American origin of Ampelopsis (Vitaceae), the ancestral grapevine lead to diversification in the mid-Oligocene. The rise of Vitis in the early Miocene was followed by the separation of North American and Asian land masses, In the late Miocene, this geographical separation lead to the fragmentation and speciation during the Pliocene and Pleistocene cooling cycles.
I was under the impression that the origins of the grapevine was in the Transcaucasia region, but I now know that this is related to Vitis vinifera. I now know that the ancient ancestors of that small branch of Vitis originated in North America when it was part of a supercontinent called Laurasia!
Finis!

References:
1. Yizhen Wan, Heidi R Schwaninger, Angela M Baldo, Joanne A Labate, Gan-Yuan Zhong, and Charles J Simon, A phylogenetic analysis of the grape genus (Vitis L.) reveals broad reticulation and concurrent diversification during neogene and quaternary climate change, BMC Evolutionary Biology 2013, 13:141.
2. SlideShare.
3. Wikipedia, Laurasia
3. Scitable, The Molecular Clock and Estimating Species Divergence.
4.Evolutionary genomics of grape (Vitis vinifera ssp. vinifera) domestication

A phylogenetic analysis of the grape genus (Vitis L.): Part 1

Welcome to Part 1 of the rabbit hole referred to in my blog Understanding the Science Behind Ancient Wine that contained a reference to this article A phylogenetic analysis of the grape genus (Vitis L.) reveals broad reticulation and concurrent diversification during neogene and quaternary climate change.¹
Published in 2013, this paper from Chinese researchers and members of Cornell University used genetic markers to help to determine the past history of grapevine origins.
First, I want to set the stage for understanding (my own) what kind of research the authors conducted in order to come to their conclusion which put dates on the emergence of the genus and the various branches that arose.
Bottomline: Their research concluded that the modern Vitis grape species diverged from earlier relatives about 28 million years ago, that Eurasian grapes diverged from North American ones about 11 million years ago, and finally, that European species diverged from Asian ones about 6 million years ago.
How did they do this?
This study developed and used 27 nuclear gene markers and sequenced 309 accessions of 48 Vitis species, varieties, and four out-groups to:
1) reconstruct a phylogenetic hypothesis of the genus Vitis
2) date important time points in the evolution of Vitis
3) elucidate the biogeographic history of the genus
4) evaluate systematics of Vitis within the framework of phylogeny

Where did the sampling of grape gene markers come from?:¹

How does looking at gene markers help in determining the evolutionary development and diversification (phylogenetic relationships) of the grape?
There is a hypothesis known as the molecular clock.² The molecular clock records mutations that occur in DNA and provides a kind of ledger. The concept of the molecular clock is a valuable tool in evolutionary studies, currently researchers retain some aspects of the original clock hypothesis while "relaxing" the assumption of a strictly constant rate. The molecular clock must be calibrated based on the organism being studied, relying on some absolute age of some evolutionary divergence event.
In calibrating the molecular clock for the origin of Vitis, the authors chose fossil estimates and distributional inferences that place Vitis into the Paleogene.
The major factors in branching events in the evolution of Vitis include hybridization and recombination. Evolution is arrested by clonal propagation.
With the information above, the stage has been set for the nitty gritty details of the research that will come in Part 2, a future blog.
References:
1. Yizhen Wan, Heidi R Schwaninger, Angela M Baldo, Joanne A Labate, Gan-Yuan Zhong, and Charles J Simon, A phylogenetic analysis of the grape genus (Vitis L.) reveals broad reticulation and concurrent diversification during neogene and quaternary climate change, BMC Evolutionary Biology 2013, 13:141.
2. Scitable, The Molecular Clock and Estimating Species Divergence.
3.Evolutionary genomics of grape (Vitis vinifera ssp. vinifera) domestication

Supplementary Material
Definitions:
Clade: monophyletic, meaning that it contains one ancestor (which can be an organism, a population, or a species) and all its descendants. The ancestor can be known or unknown; any and all members of a clade can be extant or extinct.
Ma: Ages are abbreviated from Latin: Ga (giga-annum) is a billion years, Ma (mega-annum) is a million years, ka (kilo-annum) is a thousand years. (The main argument for using Ma to represent durations is that geologists are used to thinking about numbers meaning ages:70 Ma refers to a time in the Cretaceous.)
Reticulation: is a structure of an identification tree, where there are several possible routes to a correct identification; the tree's "branches" are thus connected into a network, and the key is more robust against errors.
I also consulted several articles to help me understand what I was reading:

• Khan Academy: Phylogenetic Trees
• Wine Folly: Native Wine Grapes of America (Beautiful photos of grapes)
• University of California: Geologic Time Scale

Cane Tethering Equipment

We are in the midst of pruning and tethering our canes to the trellis wire. My friend suggested that it would be great if a robot could do this work. I concur. Here is the closest thing to automating part of the task that my husband found on YouTube:

So far, we've pruned and tethered about 1/3rd of the vineyard with many more plants to go.

Understanding the Science Behind Ancient Wine

In February, I came upon a really cool article at SevenFiftyDaily called Understanding the Science Behind Ancient Wine.¹
The article immediately appealed to me because not only did it examine how scientific techniques were used in the elucidation of ancient wine it also delved into the use of genomics to understand the genetics and ancestry of grapes (Vitis). It is a very accessible article to read, but I wanted more. So, I followed the links that were provided in the article and it propelled me on a grapevine genetics ancestry research mining expedition.
Here is what the Grapevine Family Tree looks like:²

One of the links that lead me down the rabbit hole was this article A phylogenetic analysis of the grape genus (Vitis L.) reveals broad reticulation and concurrent diversification during neogene and quaternary climate change that takes the grape family tree to a whole different level.³
Here is the summary of their findings: Published in 2013, this paper from Chinese researchers and members of Cornell University peered far deeper into the past. Their research suggest that the modern Vitis grape species diverged from earlier relatives about 28 million years ago, that Eurasian grapes diverged from North American ones about 11 million years ago, and finally, that European species diverged from Asian ones about 6 million years ago.
Come down the rabbit hole with me by following my future blogposts on this topic. So far, I've collated all of the previous blogposts on Grape Genetics under this new tab:

References:
1. SevenFiftyDaily, Understanding the Science Behind Ancient Wine.
2. Vitis International Variety Catalogue VIVC, Taxonomic tree.
3. Yizhen Wan, Heidi R Schwaninger, Angela M Baldo, Joanne A Labate, Gan-Yuan Zhong, and Charles J Simon, A phylogenetic analysis of the grape genus (Vitis L.) reveals broad reticulation and concurrent diversification during neogene and quaternary climate change, BMC Evolutionary Biology 2013, 13:141.

Turning to Nature to Produce First-Class Wines

My friend, who is an organic grower recently sent this article to me via snail mail. This article was published in the Wall Street Journal publication called Penta and was all about the Eco Wine Boom, March 2018 issue.

We can totally relate to the vineyard activity shown in the photo of Tom Ward from Shinn Estates pruning the vineyard. The article mentions that No two vines will be cut the same; each presents its own puzzle to solve. So true.
The article then went on to describe how European growers are transitioning their vineyards from using chemical fertilizers toward more sustainable organic and biodynamic practices.
One thing that I found to be very interesting was the definition of the following:

• Sustainable: Sustainable farming allows for flexibility to respond to uncertain conditions, but it can be slippery slope in the hands of producers who don't rely on third-party certification to verify what they do. Groups have cropped up across the U.S. to boost integrity, including LIVE in the Pacific Northwest and Long Island Sustainable Winegrowing.
• Organic: Wines labeled organic in the U.S. are certified by the Department of Agriculture. "Made with organic grapes" means the grapes are 100% organic, and the wine is made in an organic-certified facility, according to Pam Strayer, an expert in organic and biodynamic wines. These wines can have sulfites up to 100 parts per million units of wine, aiding in preservation.
• Biodynamic: A producer must be certified by Demeter, an international nonprofit that verifies biodynamic practices and principles, to call itself "biodynamic," says Elizabeth Candelario, managing director at Demeter USA. Biodynamic practices go beyond organic to treat the vineyard as part of a complex "self-contained, self-sustaining" ecosystem that includes soil, plants, insects, and animals, Demeter says. Biodynamic practices include natural soil preparations, ideally made with components from the farm, including herbal teas, manure, and cow horns.
• Natural: A largely unregulated movement that encourages "natural" processes in the vineyard through winemaking. Natural wines don't have added sulfites (the USDA does have an "organic wine" category of no-added-sulfite wines, Strayer says). The risk is that these wines can spoil, so buy carefully.

I appreciated knowing the difference between sustainable, organic, biodynamic and natural wines. It brought to mind a restaurant sign that my husband and I recently saw that said: vegan organic sustainable cuisine. Huh? Maybe I can "get" it now.
Thanks for the article!

Wine Tasting at Jonathan Edwards

Last week, on a short break from pruning, we went to Jonathan Edwards Winery and brought two of our wines for them to taste and to give us some feedback. We took our 2016 still wine and the 2017 Pét-Nat, a sparkler made in the méthode ancestrale style.
We are still in the label designing phase, so our wines had no label on them. When a wine is presented this way, it is called a "shiner". Initially, I thought that this term was a corruption of the term "moonshiner", but then I learned from reading James Laube's article in Wine Spectator, that shiners are finished, bottled wines that don’t have a label or typically any other identifying feature. They’re called shiners because they are unlabeled and have a “shiny” appearance.
We met with Jonathan Edwards and his winemaker Michael Harney. We first opened up our 2016 still wine. Let me give you a little background on this wine. It is our second vintage. 2016 was a very warm summer, in fact, this was the year that we needed our irrigation in a bad way since we had no rain to speak of from May until we turned on the irrigation in the third week in July. In a word, summer was "hot". This gave the grapes a lot of sunlight to ripen and we had a good amount of sugar, which we measured to be north of 22 Brix. This wine sat on lies (sur lie aging) for almost 10 months since spring and summer of 2017 came and then it was time for another harvest and we needed to free up the kegs that this wine was in. After bottling the wine, we did have Kareem and Charles Massoud of Paumanok give us their feedback. They liked the body that this wine had and picked up on the fact that it had sat on lies. So imagine our surprise (and bewilderment, shock, perplexity) when it tasted very thin! In looking back at our tasting notes on this wine, we did see that on another occasion, it did come off thin or perhaps it was in a "dumb phase". We are still mystified by this.
But, our Pét-Nat was a total surprise. Since the bottling in November, the bubbles had gotten smaller and longer lasting and the bouquet from the sparkler was intensely fruit. It saved the day for us.